Recipe for assimilation: national integration, the ethnic other and the evolution of Kandyan consciousness in Sri Lanka
Abstract
The Kandyan Sinhalese of Sri Lanka (previously Ceylon) occupy the central highlands of the island, and are believed to have a disposition that is ‘culturally’ different from that of their counterparts in the lowlands. This difference, real or perceived, was most strongly emphasized during the colonial era when the low-country Sinhalese settled in Kandyan areas in large numbers, and started benefiting from the British-introduced plantation economy that thrived on Kandyan soil, thus creating a competition of sorts between the Kandyan and low-country Sinhalese. Such competition subsequently prompted a federal demand by the Kandyans. Interestingly, they currently seem to have harmonized perfectly with the unitary model of the state, their erstwhile demands apparently forgotten. This study explores the reasons behind this evolution of the Kandyan consciousness by studying the function of integrative forces in the nation-building process of post-colonial Ceylon that expedited the absorption of Kandyans into the larger Ceylonese nation. Specifically, it examines the context in which the Kandyan demand for federalism emerged, and how the ethnic conflict shaped the Sinhalese perception of power-sharing and how that in turn impacted the Kandyan understanding of same. Towards this end, the study has made use of the Integrated Threat Theory, National Identity Theory, Ethnic Nation Theory, and Typology of Integration. Surveys, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews have been employed in building the analysis of this research. It contends that the rise of Tamil nationalism effectively paled all intra-Sinhalese divisions, synonymized the Ceylonese/Sri Lankan nation with the Sinhalese ethnicity, and thus provided a very potent incentive for the Kandyans to accept the project of the unitary state, their previous grievances and the resultant demand for federal autonomy notwithstanding.
References
(2013), Central Province wants 13A amended, Daily Mirror, 28 June, accessed at http://www.dailymirror.lk/news/31604-central-province-wants-13-a-amended.html
Anderson, B. (1991), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso
Appuhamy, D. (1995), The Kandyans’ Last Stand Against the British, Colombo: M. D. Gunasena & Company Ltd.
Balasingham, A. S. (2011), The Birth of the Tiger Movement LTTE, accessed at http://www.eelamview.com/-2011/11/20/the-birth-of-the-tiger-movement-ltte/
Bandara, N. (2006), ‘Nation Building or Nations Building: A Critical Evaluation of the Theory and Practice of National Integration Focusing on Sri Lanka’, in Jayawardene, A. (ed.), Perspectives on national integration in Sri Lanka, Colombo: National Integration Programme Unit: 25-42
Bandarage, A. (2008), The Separatist Conflict in Sri Lanka: Terrorism, Ethnicity, Political Economy, London: Routledge
Biziouras, N. (2014), The Political Economy of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Economic Liberalization, Mobilizational Resources, and Ethnic Collective Action, London: Routledge
Burgess, M. (2006), Comparative Federalism: Theory and Practice, London: Routledge
Ceylon: Report of the Special Commission on the Constitution, Cmd. 3131 (1928), London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office
Clifford, J. (2000), ‘Taking Identity Politics Seriously: the Contradictory, Stony Ground...’ in Gilroy, P., L. Grossberg, and A. McRobbie, (eds.), Without Guarantees: Essays in Honour of Stuart Hall, London: Verso Press: 94-112
Coomaraswamy, T. (1988), Parliamentary Representation in Sri Lanka 1931-1988, Unpublished manuscript
Creswell, J.W. (2007), ‘Five Qualitative Approaches to Inquiry’ in Creswell, J.W. (ed.), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, SAGE publications: 53-84
De Silva, K.M. (1981), A History of Sri Lanka, California: University of California Press
De Votta, N. (2004), Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka, California: Stanford University Press
De Votta, N. (2007), Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology: Implications for Politics and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Washington: East-West Center Washington
Dharmadasa, K.N.O. (1992), Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka, Michigan: University of Michigan Press
Duncan, J. S. (1990), City as Text: Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Edirisinghe, R. and A. Welikala (Eds) (2008), Essays on Federalism in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives
Feeley, M. and Rubin, E. (2008), Federalism: Political Identity and Tragic Compromise, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
Galahitiyawa, P.B. (2011), Peradeniya and K.N.O. Dharmadasa, The Island, January 25, accessed at http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=16738
Ghosh, P.S. (2003), Ethnicity Versus Nationalism: The Devolution Discourse in Sri Lanka, New Delhi: SAGE Publications
Gunaratne, A. (2004), ‘What’s in a Name? Aryans and Dravidians in the Making of Sri Lankan Identities’, in Silva, N. (ed.), The Hybrid Island – Culture crossings and the invention of identity in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Social Scientists’ Association: 20-40
Gunawardana, R.A.L.H. (2006), ‘Roots of the Conflict and the Peace Process’, in Deegalle, M. (ed.), Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka, London: Routledge: 177-201
Gunewardena, R.A.L.H. (1990), ‘The People of the Lion: Sinhala Consciousness in History and Historiography’, in Spencer, J. (ed.), Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict, New York: Routledge: 45-87
Herath, R. B. (2002), Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution, Indiana: Trafford Publishing
Hoole, R. (1998), ‘The Tamil Secessionist Movement in Sri Lanka (Ceylon): A Case of Secession by Default?’, in Spencer, M. (ed.), Separatism: Democracy and Disintegration, London: Rowman and Littlefield: 251-278
Hoole, R. (2001), ‘Authoritarianism and the Crisis of Identity’, in Hoole, R. and R. Thiranagama (eds.), Sri Lanka – The Arrogance of Power: Myths, Decadence & Murder, Jaffna: University Teachers for Human Rights
Hoole, R. and R. Thiranagama, (eds.), (2001), Sri Lanka – The Arrogance of Power: Myths, Decadence & Murder, Jaffna: University Teachers for Human Rights
Horiwitz, D. L. (2007), ‘Incentives and behaviour in the ethnic politics of Sri Lanka and Malaysia’, Third World Quarterly 11(4): 18-35
I.T.A.K. Resolutions (2009), Power-sharing in Sri Lanka: Constitutional and Political Documents 1926-2008, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives
I.T.A.K. Resolutions (2009), Power-sharing in Sri Lanka: Constitutional and Political Documents 1926-2008, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives
Imitiaz, A.R.M. (2010), ‘Politicization of Buddhism and Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka’, in Ali Riaz (ed.), Religion and Politics in South Asia, Taylor and Francis: 146-176
Jayawardena, K. (1983), ‘Some Aspects of Class & Ethnic Consciousness in Sri Lanka in the late 19th and Early 20th Centuries’, in Social Scientists’ Association of Sri Lanka (ed.), Ethnicity and Social Change in Sri Lanka: Papers Presented at a Seminar Organized by the Social Scientists’ Association, December 1979, Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons Ltd: 128-146
Jayawardena, K. (2000), Nobodies to Somebodies: The Rise of the Colonial Bourgeois in Sri Lanka, London: Zen Books
Jiggins, J. (1979), Caste and Family Politics Sinhalese 1947-1976, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Kanapathipillai, V. (2009), Citizenship and Statelessness in Sri Lanka: The Case of the Tamil Estate Workers, London: Anthem Press
Kapferer, B. (2011), Legends of People, Myths of State: Violence, Intolerance, and Political Culture in Sri Lanka and Australia, New York: Berghahn Books
Liyanage, S. (2005), ‘Right of Self-Determination in Diverse Societies: The Case of Sri Lanka’, in Uyangoda, J. (ed.), Conflict, Conflict Resolution and Peace Building: An Introduction to Theories and Practices, Colombo: University of Colombo: 120-148
Malagoda, K. (1976), Buddhism in Sinhalese Society, 1750-1900: A Study of Religious Revival and Chang, Berkeley: University of California Press
Manogaran, C. (1987), Ethnic Conflict and Reconciliation in Sri Lanka, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press
Manor, J. (1982), ‘The Dynamics of Political Integration and Disintegration’, in Wilson, A.J. and D. Dalton (eds.), The States of South Asia: Problems of National Integration, London: C. Hurst: 89-93
Mylonas, H. (2007, April), ‘A Theory of Nation-Building: Assimilation and its Alternatives in Southeastern Europe’, paper presented at the third Hellenic Observatory PhD Symposium on Contemporary Greece: Structures, Context and Challenges, LSE, London, United Kingdom
Nubin, W. (2002), Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background, New York: Nova Publishers
Orjuela, C. (2004), Civil Society in Civil War – Peace Work and Identity Politics in Sri Lanka, Gӧteborg: Department of Peace and Development Research, Gӧtborg University
Pieris, P. E. (1995), Tri Sinhala – The Last Phase, Colombo: Lake House Bookshop
Rajasingham-Senanayake, D. (2004), ‘Identity on the Borderline: Modernity, New Ethnicities, and the Unmaking of Multiculturalism in Sri Lanka’, in Silva, N. (ed.), The Hybrid Island – Culture crossings and the invention of identity in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Social Scientists’ Association: 41-70
Roberts, M. (1978), ‘Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka and Sinhalese Perspectives: Barriers to Accommodation’, Modern Asian Studies 12(3): 353-376
Roberts, Michael (ed.), (1977), Documents of the Ceylon National Congress and the Nationalist Movement of Ceylon 1929-1950, Colombo: Department of National Archives
Rotberg, R.I. (1999), Creating Peace in Sri Lanka: Civil War and Reconciliation, Oregon: Brookings Institution Press
Sambandan, V.S. (2006), ‘Federalism and the Media: Some Realities and Stereotypes from Sri Lanka’, in Raghavan, V.R. and Bauer, V. (eds.), Federalism and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Lancer Publishers: 106-121
Sambandan, V.S. (2006), ‘Federalism and the Media: Some Realities and Stereotypes from Sri Lanka’, in Raghavan, V.R. and Bauer, V. (eds.), Federalism and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Delhi: Lancer Publishers: 106-121
Schrikker, A. (2007), Dutch and British Colonial Intervention in Sri Lanka, 1780-1815: Expansion and Reform, Leiden: Brill Publishers
Sebastian, J.P. (2004), Underdevelopment and Militancy: The Case of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka (Doctoral dissertation, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India), accessed at http://mgutheses.in/png/T%201604/T%201604.pdf
Shastri, A. (2007), ‘Estate Tamils, the Ceylon citizenship act of 1948 and Sri Lankan politics’, Contemporary South Asia 8(1): 65-86
Smith, A.D. (1988), The Ethnic Origins of Nations, New Jersey: Wiley Publishing
Smith, G. (ed.), (1995), Federalism: the multi ethnic challenge, London: Longman
Social Scientists’ Association (2012), Survey on the State of Democracy in Sri Lanka
Spencer, J. (1990), ‘Introduction: The Power of the Past’, in Spencer, J. (ed.), Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict, New York: Routledge: 1-16
Sriskandharajah, D. (2005), ‘Socio-economic inequality and ethno-political conflict: some observations from Sri Lanka’, Contemporary South Asia 14(3): 341-356
Stephan, W.G. and Stephan, C.W. (2000), ‘An Integrated Threat Theory of Prejudice’, in Oskamp, S. (ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination, Hove: Psychology Press: 23-45
Tambiah, S.J. (1986), Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy, London: I.B. Tauris
Uyangoda, J. (2000), ‘Post-Independence Social Movements’ in Lakshman, W.D. and C.A. Tisdell, (eds.), Sri Lanka’s Development Since Independence: Socio-economic Perspectives and Analyses, New York: Nova Publishers: 61-76
Uyangoda, J. (2005), ‘Ethnic conflict, the state and the tsunami disaster in Sri Lanka’, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 6(3): 341-352
Uyangoda, J. (2007), Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka : changing dynamics, Washington D.C.: East West Center
Uyangoda, J. (2011), ‘Travails of State Reform in the Context of Protracted Civil War in Sri Lanka’, in Stokke, K. and Uyangoda, J. (eds.), Liberal Peace in Question: Politics of State and Market Reform in Sri Lanka, London: Anthem Press: 35-61
Vivekananthan, C.V. (2003), When Sinhalese supported and Tamils opposed federalism, Sunday Times, January 19, accessed at http://www.sundaytimes.lk/030119/columns/cv.html
Weiner, M. (1965), ‘Political Integration and Political Development’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 358: 52-64
Welhengama, G. & Pillai, N. (2014), The Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka: From Communalism to Secession, London: Routledge
Welikala, A. (2008), ‘Ethnos or Demos? Questioning Tamil Nationalism’, in Edirisinha, R. and Welikala, A. (eds.), Essays on Federalism in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives: 67-84
Welikala, A. (2008), ‘The Devolution Project in Sri Lanka: Towards Two Nations in One State?’, in Edirisinha, R. and A. Welikala (eds.), Essays on Federalism in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives: 67-84
Wickramasinghe, N. (2006), Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Contested Identities, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press
Wijetunga, W. M. K. (1958), ‘The Background of the Nayakkars of Kandy’, University of Ceylon Review 16: 125-130
Wilson, A.J. (1999), Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, British Columbia: UBC Press
Wriggins, W.H. (1960), Ceylon: Dilemmas of a New Nation, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
Anderson, B. (1991), Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso
Appuhamy, D. (1995), The Kandyans’ Last Stand Against the British, Colombo: M. D. Gunasena & Company Ltd.
Balasingham, A. S. (2011), The Birth of the Tiger Movement LTTE, accessed at http://www.eelamview.com/-2011/11/20/the-birth-of-the-tiger-movement-ltte/
Bandara, N. (2006), ‘Nation Building or Nations Building: A Critical Evaluation of the Theory and Practice of National Integration Focusing on Sri Lanka’, in Jayawardene, A. (ed.), Perspectives on national integration in Sri Lanka, Colombo: National Integration Programme Unit: 25-42
Bandarage, A. (2008), The Separatist Conflict in Sri Lanka: Terrorism, Ethnicity, Political Economy, London: Routledge
Biziouras, N. (2014), The Political Economy of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Economic Liberalization, Mobilizational Resources, and Ethnic Collective Action, London: Routledge
Burgess, M. (2006), Comparative Federalism: Theory and Practice, London: Routledge
Ceylon: Report of the Special Commission on the Constitution, Cmd. 3131 (1928), London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office
Clifford, J. (2000), ‘Taking Identity Politics Seriously: the Contradictory, Stony Ground...’ in Gilroy, P., L. Grossberg, and A. McRobbie, (eds.), Without Guarantees: Essays in Honour of Stuart Hall, London: Verso Press: 94-112
Coomaraswamy, T. (1988), Parliamentary Representation in Sri Lanka 1931-1988, Unpublished manuscript
Creswell, J.W. (2007), ‘Five Qualitative Approaches to Inquiry’ in Creswell, J.W. (ed.), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, SAGE publications: 53-84
De Silva, K.M. (1981), A History of Sri Lanka, California: University of California Press
De Votta, N. (2004), Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka, California: Stanford University Press
De Votta, N. (2007), Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology: Implications for Politics and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Washington: East-West Center Washington
Dharmadasa, K.N.O. (1992), Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka, Michigan: University of Michigan Press
Duncan, J. S. (1990), City as Text: Politics of Landscape Interpretation in the Kandyan Kingdom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Edirisinghe, R. and A. Welikala (Eds) (2008), Essays on Federalism in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives
Feeley, M. and Rubin, E. (2008), Federalism: Political Identity and Tragic Compromise, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
Galahitiyawa, P.B. (2011), Peradeniya and K.N.O. Dharmadasa, The Island, January 25, accessed at http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=16738
Ghosh, P.S. (2003), Ethnicity Versus Nationalism: The Devolution Discourse in Sri Lanka, New Delhi: SAGE Publications
Gunaratne, A. (2004), ‘What’s in a Name? Aryans and Dravidians in the Making of Sri Lankan Identities’, in Silva, N. (ed.), The Hybrid Island – Culture crossings and the invention of identity in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Social Scientists’ Association: 20-40
Gunawardana, R.A.L.H. (2006), ‘Roots of the Conflict and the Peace Process’, in Deegalle, M. (ed.), Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri Lanka, London: Routledge: 177-201
Gunewardena, R.A.L.H. (1990), ‘The People of the Lion: Sinhala Consciousness in History and Historiography’, in Spencer, J. (ed.), Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict, New York: Routledge: 45-87
Herath, R. B. (2002), Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution, Indiana: Trafford Publishing
Hoole, R. (1998), ‘The Tamil Secessionist Movement in Sri Lanka (Ceylon): A Case of Secession by Default?’, in Spencer, M. (ed.), Separatism: Democracy and Disintegration, London: Rowman and Littlefield: 251-278
Hoole, R. (2001), ‘Authoritarianism and the Crisis of Identity’, in Hoole, R. and R. Thiranagama (eds.), Sri Lanka – The Arrogance of Power: Myths, Decadence & Murder, Jaffna: University Teachers for Human Rights
Hoole, R. and R. Thiranagama, (eds.), (2001), Sri Lanka – The Arrogance of Power: Myths, Decadence & Murder, Jaffna: University Teachers for Human Rights
Horiwitz, D. L. (2007), ‘Incentives and behaviour in the ethnic politics of Sri Lanka and Malaysia’, Third World Quarterly 11(4): 18-35
I.T.A.K. Resolutions (2009), Power-sharing in Sri Lanka: Constitutional and Political Documents 1926-2008, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives
I.T.A.K. Resolutions (2009), Power-sharing in Sri Lanka: Constitutional and Political Documents 1926-2008, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives
Imitiaz, A.R.M. (2010), ‘Politicization of Buddhism and Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka’, in Ali Riaz (ed.), Religion and Politics in South Asia, Taylor and Francis: 146-176
Jayawardena, K. (1983), ‘Some Aspects of Class & Ethnic Consciousness in Sri Lanka in the late 19th and Early 20th Centuries’, in Social Scientists’ Association of Sri Lanka (ed.), Ethnicity and Social Change in Sri Lanka: Papers Presented at a Seminar Organized by the Social Scientists’ Association, December 1979, Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons Ltd: 128-146
Jayawardena, K. (2000), Nobodies to Somebodies: The Rise of the Colonial Bourgeois in Sri Lanka, London: Zen Books
Jiggins, J. (1979), Caste and Family Politics Sinhalese 1947-1976, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Kanapathipillai, V. (2009), Citizenship and Statelessness in Sri Lanka: The Case of the Tamil Estate Workers, London: Anthem Press
Kapferer, B. (2011), Legends of People, Myths of State: Violence, Intolerance, and Political Culture in Sri Lanka and Australia, New York: Berghahn Books
Liyanage, S. (2005), ‘Right of Self-Determination in Diverse Societies: The Case of Sri Lanka’, in Uyangoda, J. (ed.), Conflict, Conflict Resolution and Peace Building: An Introduction to Theories and Practices, Colombo: University of Colombo: 120-148
Malagoda, K. (1976), Buddhism in Sinhalese Society, 1750-1900: A Study of Religious Revival and Chang, Berkeley: University of California Press
Manogaran, C. (1987), Ethnic Conflict and Reconciliation in Sri Lanka, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press
Manor, J. (1982), ‘The Dynamics of Political Integration and Disintegration’, in Wilson, A.J. and D. Dalton (eds.), The States of South Asia: Problems of National Integration, London: C. Hurst: 89-93
Mylonas, H. (2007, April), ‘A Theory of Nation-Building: Assimilation and its Alternatives in Southeastern Europe’, paper presented at the third Hellenic Observatory PhD Symposium on Contemporary Greece: Structures, Context and Challenges, LSE, London, United Kingdom
Nubin, W. (2002), Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background, New York: Nova Publishers
Orjuela, C. (2004), Civil Society in Civil War – Peace Work and Identity Politics in Sri Lanka, Gӧteborg: Department of Peace and Development Research, Gӧtborg University
Pieris, P. E. (1995), Tri Sinhala – The Last Phase, Colombo: Lake House Bookshop
Rajasingham-Senanayake, D. (2004), ‘Identity on the Borderline: Modernity, New Ethnicities, and the Unmaking of Multiculturalism in Sri Lanka’, in Silva, N. (ed.), The Hybrid Island – Culture crossings and the invention of identity in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Social Scientists’ Association: 41-70
Roberts, M. (1978), ‘Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka and Sinhalese Perspectives: Barriers to Accommodation’, Modern Asian Studies 12(3): 353-376
Roberts, Michael (ed.), (1977), Documents of the Ceylon National Congress and the Nationalist Movement of Ceylon 1929-1950, Colombo: Department of National Archives
Rotberg, R.I. (1999), Creating Peace in Sri Lanka: Civil War and Reconciliation, Oregon: Brookings Institution Press
Sambandan, V.S. (2006), ‘Federalism and the Media: Some Realities and Stereotypes from Sri Lanka’, in Raghavan, V.R. and Bauer, V. (eds.), Federalism and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Lancer Publishers: 106-121
Sambandan, V.S. (2006), ‘Federalism and the Media: Some Realities and Stereotypes from Sri Lanka’, in Raghavan, V.R. and Bauer, V. (eds.), Federalism and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka, Delhi: Lancer Publishers: 106-121
Schrikker, A. (2007), Dutch and British Colonial Intervention in Sri Lanka, 1780-1815: Expansion and Reform, Leiden: Brill Publishers
Sebastian, J.P. (2004), Underdevelopment and Militancy: The Case of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka (Doctoral dissertation, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India), accessed at http://mgutheses.in/png/T%201604/T%201604.pdf
Shastri, A. (2007), ‘Estate Tamils, the Ceylon citizenship act of 1948 and Sri Lankan politics’, Contemporary South Asia 8(1): 65-86
Smith, A.D. (1988), The Ethnic Origins of Nations, New Jersey: Wiley Publishing
Smith, G. (ed.), (1995), Federalism: the multi ethnic challenge, London: Longman
Social Scientists’ Association (2012), Survey on the State of Democracy in Sri Lanka
Spencer, J. (1990), ‘Introduction: The Power of the Past’, in Spencer, J. (ed.), Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict, New York: Routledge: 1-16
Sriskandharajah, D. (2005), ‘Socio-economic inequality and ethno-political conflict: some observations from Sri Lanka’, Contemporary South Asia 14(3): 341-356
Stephan, W.G. and Stephan, C.W. (2000), ‘An Integrated Threat Theory of Prejudice’, in Oskamp, S. (ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination, Hove: Psychology Press: 23-45
Tambiah, S.J. (1986), Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy, London: I.B. Tauris
Uyangoda, J. (2000), ‘Post-Independence Social Movements’ in Lakshman, W.D. and C.A. Tisdell, (eds.), Sri Lanka’s Development Since Independence: Socio-economic Perspectives and Analyses, New York: Nova Publishers: 61-76
Uyangoda, J. (2005), ‘Ethnic conflict, the state and the tsunami disaster in Sri Lanka’, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 6(3): 341-352
Uyangoda, J. (2007), Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka : changing dynamics, Washington D.C.: East West Center
Uyangoda, J. (2011), ‘Travails of State Reform in the Context of Protracted Civil War in Sri Lanka’, in Stokke, K. and Uyangoda, J. (eds.), Liberal Peace in Question: Politics of State and Market Reform in Sri Lanka, London: Anthem Press: 35-61
Vivekananthan, C.V. (2003), When Sinhalese supported and Tamils opposed federalism, Sunday Times, January 19, accessed at http://www.sundaytimes.lk/030119/columns/cv.html
Weiner, M. (1965), ‘Political Integration and Political Development’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 358: 52-64
Welhengama, G. & Pillai, N. (2014), The Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka: From Communalism to Secession, London: Routledge
Welikala, A. (2008), ‘Ethnos or Demos? Questioning Tamil Nationalism’, in Edirisinha, R. and Welikala, A. (eds.), Essays on Federalism in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives: 67-84
Welikala, A. (2008), ‘The Devolution Project in Sri Lanka: Towards Two Nations in One State?’, in Edirisinha, R. and A. Welikala (eds.), Essays on Federalism in Sri Lanka, Colombo: Center for Policy Alternatives: 67-84
Wickramasinghe, N. (2006), Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Contested Identities, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press
Wijetunga, W. M. K. (1958), ‘The Background of the Nayakkars of Kandy’, University of Ceylon Review 16: 125-130
Wilson, A.J. (1999), Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, British Columbia: UBC Press
Wriggins, W.H. (1960), Ceylon: Dilemmas of a New Nation, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
Published
06-May-2017
How to Cite
Lecamwasam, H. (2017). Recipe for assimilation: national integration, the ethnic other and the evolution of Kandyan consciousness in Sri Lanka. The South Asianist Journal, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.southasianist.ed.ac.uk/article/view/1380
Section
Articles
This is an Open Access journal. All material is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) licence, unless otherwise stated.
Please read our Open Access, Copyright and Permissions policies for more information.
